Maksimovich Peshkov (March 28 [O.S. March 16] 1868 – June 18, 1936), better known as Maxim Gorky was a Russian/Soviet author, a founder of the socialist realism literary method and a political activist. From 1906 to 1913 and from 1921 to 1929 he lived abroad, mostly in Capri, Italy; after his return to the Soviet Union he accepted the cultural policies of the time, although he was not permitted to leave the country.
Gorky was born in Nizhny Novgorod and became an orphan at the age of ten. Two years later at the age of 12 in 1880 he ran away from home and was trying to find his grandmother. Gorky was brought up by his grandmother, an excellent storyteller. Her death deeply affected him, and after an attempt at suicide in December 1887, he travelled on foot across the Russian Empire for five years, changing jobs and accumulating impressions used later in his writing.
As a journalist working in provincial newspapers, he wrote under the pseudonym Jehudiel Khlamida— suggestive of "cloak-and-dagger" by the similarity to the Greek chlamys, "cloak". He began using the pseudonym Gorky (literally "bitter") in 1892, while working in Tiflis newspaper The Caucasus. The name reflected his simmering anger about life in Russia and a determination to speak the bitter truth.
Gorky's first book Essays and Stories in 1898 enjoyed a sensational success and his career as a writer began. Gorky wrote incessantly, viewing literature less as an aesthetic practice (though he worked hard on style and form) than as a moral and political act that could change the world. He described the lives of people in the lowest strata and on the margins of society, revealing their hardships, humiliations, and brutalization, but also their inward spark of humanity.
Gorky’s reputation as a unique literary voice from the bottom strata of society and as a fervent advocate of Russia's social, political, and cultural transformation (by 1899, he was openly associating with the emerging Marxist social-democratic movement) helped make him a celebrity among both the intelligentsia and the growing numbers of "conscious" workers.
At the heart of all his work was a belief in the inherent worth and potential of the human person. He counter posed vital individuals, aware of their natural dignity, and inspired by energy and will, to people who succumb to the degrading conditions of life around them. Still, both his writings and his letters reveal a "restless man" (a frequent self-description) struggling to resolve contradictory feelings of faith and skepticism, love of life and disgust at the vulgarity and pettiness of the human world.
He publicly opposed the Tsarist regime and was arrested many times. Gorky befriended many revolutionaries and became Lenin's personal friend after they met in 1902. He exposed governmental control of the press. In 1902, Gorky was elected an honorary Academician of Literature, but Nicholas II ordered this annulled. In protest, Anton Chekhov and Vladimir Korolenko left the Academy.
The years 1900 to 1905 saw a growing optimism in Gorky’s writings. He became more involved in the opposition movement, for which he was again briefly imprisoned in 1901. Now a financially successful author, editor, and playwright, he gave financial support to the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP), though he also supported liberal appeals to the government for civil rights and social reform. The brutal shooting of workers marching to the Tsar with a petition for reform on January 9, 1905 (known as the "Bloody Sunday"), which set in motion the Revolution of 1905, seems to have pushed Gorky more decisively toward radical solutions. He now became closely associated with Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik wing of the party—though it is not clear whether he ever formally joined and his relations with Lenin and the Bolsheviks would always be rocky.
His most influential writings in these years were a series of political plays, most famously The Lower Depths (1902). In 1906, the Bolsheviks sent him on a fund-raising trip to the United States, where in the Adirondack Mountains Gorky wrote his famous novel of revolutionary conversion and struggle, Мать (Mat’, The Mother). His experiences there—which included a scandal over his traveling with his lover rather than his wife—deepened his contempt for the "bourgeois soul" but also his admiration for the boldness of the American spirit. While briefly imprisoned in Peter and Paul Fortress during the abortive 1905 Russian Revolution, Gorky wrote the play Children of the Sun, nominally set during an 1862 cholera epidemic, but universally understood to relate to present-day events.
From 1906 to 1913, Gorky lived on the island of Capri, partly for health reasons and partly to escape the increasingly repressive atmosphere in Russia. He continued to support the work of Russian social-democracy, especially the Bolsheviks, and to write fiction and cultural essays. Most controversially, he articulated, along with a few other maverick Bolsheviks, a philosophy he called "God-Building", which sought to recapture the power of myth for the revolution and to create a religious atheism that placed collective humanity where God had been and was imbued with passion, wonderment, moral certainty, and the promise of deliverance from evil, suffering, and even death. Though 'God-Building' was suppressed by Lenin, Gorky retained his belief that "culture"—the moral and spiritual awareness of the value and potential of the human self—would be more critical to the revolution’s success than political or economic arrangements.
An amnesty granted for the 300th anniversary of the Romanov dynasty allowed Gorky to return to Russia in 1913, where he continued his social criticism, mentored other writers from the common people, and wrote a series of important cultural memoirs, including the first part of his autobiography. On returning to Russia, he wrote that his main impression was that "everyone is so crushed and devoid of God's image." The only solution, he repeatedly declared, was "culture".
During World War I, his apartment in Petrograd was turned into a Bolshevik staff room, but his relations with the Communists turned sour. Two weeks after the October Revolution of 1917 he wrote: "Lenin and Trotsky don't have any idea about freedom or human rights. They are already corrupted by the dirty poison of power, this is visible by their shameful disrespect of freedom of speech and all other civil liberties for which the democracy was fighting". After his newspaper Novaya Zhizn ("New Life") fell prey to Bolshevik censorship, Gorky published a collection of essays critical of the Bolsheviks called Untimely Thoughts in 1918. (It would not be published in Russia again until the end of the Soviet Union.) The essays call Lenin a tyrant for his senseless arrests and repression of free discourse, and an anarchist for his conspiratorial tactics.
In August 1921, Nikolai Gumilyov, his friend, fellow writer and Anna Akhmatova's husband, was arrested by the Petrograd Cheka for his monarchist views. Gorky hurried to Moscow, obtained an order to release Gumilyov from Lenin personally, but upon his return to Petrograd he found out that Gumilyov had already been shot. In October, Gorky returned to Italy on health grounds: he had tuberculosis.
According to Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Gorky's return to the Soviet Union was motivated by material needs. In Sorrento, Gorky found himself without money and without fame. He visited the USSR several times after 1929, and in 1932 Joseph Stalin personally invited him to return for good, an offer he accepted. In June 1929, Gorky visited Solovki (cleaned up for this occasion) and wrote a positive article about that Gulag camp, which had already gained ill fame in the West. Later he stated that everything he had written was under the control of censors. What he actually saw and thought when visiting the camp has been a highly discussed topic.
Gorky's return from fascist Italy was a major propaganda victory for the Soviets. He was decorated with the Order of Lenin and given a mansion (formerly belonging to the millionaire Ryabushinsky, now the Gorky Museum) in Moscow and a dacha in the suburbs. One of the central Moscow streets, Tverskaya, was renamed in his honor, as was the city of his birth. The largest fixed-wing aircraft in the world in the mid-1930s, the Tupolev ANT-20 was also named Maxim Gorky. It was used for propaganda purposes and often demonstratively flew over the Soviet capital.
The sudden death of his son Maxim Peshkov in May 1935 was followed by the death of Maxim Gorky himself in June 1936. Speculation has long surrounded the circumstances of his death. Stalin and Molotov were among those who carried Gorky's coffin during the funeral.
During the Bukharin show trials in 1938, one of the charges was that Gorky was killed by Yagoda's NKVD agents.
In Soviet times, before and after his death, the complexities in Gorky's life and outlook were reduced to an iconic image (echoed in heroic pictures and statues dotting the countryside): Gorky as a great Russian writer who emerged from the common people, a loyal friend of the Bolsheviks, and the founder of the increasingly canonical "socialist realism." In turn, dissident intellectuals dismissed Gorky as a tendentious ideological writer, though some Western writers noted Gorky's doubts and criticisms.
Today, greater balance is to be found in works on Gorky, where we see a growing appreciation of the complex moral perspective on modern Russian life expressed in his writings. Some historians have begun to view Gorky as one of the most insightful observers of both the promises and moral dangers of revolution in Russia.
Thursday, April 2, 2009
Monday, February 9, 2009
UNIT 6
The National emblems of the Russian Empire were the state emblem and the state seal in three variants: great, middle and lesser. Quite often the Russian state emblems are incorrectly called "coats of arms".
Emblem State
The State Emblem of the Russian Empire (Герб Российской Империи) consisted of a golden escutcheon with a black two-headed eagle crowned with two imperial crowns, over which the same third crown, enlarged, with two flying ends of the ribbon of the Order of Saint Andrew. The State Eagle held a golden scepter and golden globus cruciger. On the chest of the Eagle there was an escutcheon with the arms of Moscow, depicting Saint George, mounted and defeating the Serpent.
Great State Emblem
The depicted Great State Emblem (Большой государственный герб Российской Империи) was adopted in 1882, replacing the previous version of 1857. Tsar Alexander III first approved the relevant design on July 24, which, with minor modifications, was officially adopted on November 3.
Its central element is the State Emblem, crowned with the helmet of Alexander Nevsky, with black and golden mantling, and flanked by the archangels Michael and Gabriel. The collar of the Order of Saint Andrew is suspended from the State Emblem. The whole lies within a golden ermine mantle, crowned by the Imperial Crown of Russia and decorated with black double-headed eagles. The inscription on the canopy reads: Съ Нами Богъ ("God is with us"). Above the canopy stands the state khorugv, of gold cloth, on which is depicted the Medium State Seal. The banner is topped by the State Eagle.
Around the central composition are placed fifteen coats of arms of the various territories of the Russian Empire. Nine of these are crowned and placed on a laurel and oak wreath. From left to right, these represent, as they are included in the full imperial title: the Khanate of Kazan, the Kingdom of Poland, Tauric Chersonesos, the unified coat of arms of the Grand Principalities of Kiev, Vladimir and Novgorod, the dynastic arms of the House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov, the Grand Duchy of Finland, the Georgian principalities, and the Khanates of Siberia and Astrakhan.
The six upper escutcheons are joint depictions of various smaller principalities and oblasts. From left to right, these are: the combined arms of the northeastern regions (Perm, Volga Bulgaria, Vyatka, Kondinsky, Obdorsk), of Belorussia and Lithuania (Lithuania, Białystok, Samogitia, Polatsk, Vitebsk, Mstislavl), the provinces of Great Russia proper (Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Ryazan, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Belozersk, Udorsky), the arms of the southwestern regions (Volhyn, Podolsk, Chernigov), the Baltic provinces (Estland, Courland and Semigalia, Karelia, Livland) and Turkestan.
Middle State Emblem
The Middle State Emblem (Средний государственный герб Российской Империи) is similar to the Great State Emblem, excluding the khorugv and the six upper escutcheons. The Abbreviated Imperial Title is inscribed over the perimeter of the Seal.
Lesser State Emblem
The Lesser State Emblem (Малый государственный герб Российской Империи) depicts the imperial double-headed eagle, as used in the State Emblem, with the addition of the collar of the Order of Saint Andrew around the escutcheon of St. George, and the Arms of Astrakhan, Siberia, Georgia, Finland, Kiev-Vladimir-Novgorod, Taurica, Poland and Kazan on the wings (seen clockwise).
History and evolution of the arms
The use of the double-headed eagle as a Russian emblem goes back to the 15th century. With the fall of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the Grand Dukes of Muscovy came to see themselves as the successors of the Byzantine heritage, a notion reinforced by the marriage of Ivan III to Sophia Paleologue (hence the expression "Third Rome" for Moscow and, by extension, for the whole of Imperial Russia). Ivan adopted the golden Byzantine double-headed eagle in his seal, first documented in 1472, marking his direct claim to the Roman imperial heritage and posing as a sovereign equal and rival to the Holy Roman Empire.
The other main Russian national emblem, the image of St George slaying the dragon, is contemporaneous. In its first form, as a rider armed with a spear, it is found in the seal of Vasili I of Moscow. At the time of Ivan III, the dragon was added, but the final association with Saint George was not made until 1730, when it was described as such in an Imperial decree. Eventually, St George became the patron saint of Moscow (and, by extension, of Russia).
After the assumption of the title of Tsar by Ivan IV, the two emblems are found combined, with the eagle bearing an escutcheon depicting St George on the breast. With the establishment of the Moscow Patriarchate in 1589, a patriarchal cross was added for a time between the heads of the eagle.
In the beginning of the 17th century, with the ascension of the Romanov dynasty and its contacts with Western Europe, the image of the eagle changed. In 1625 for the first time the double-headed eagle appeared with three crowns. Traditionally, the latter have alternatively been interpreted as representing the conquered kingdoms of Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia, as stated in the first edict concerning the state seal, on 14 December 1667, or as standing for the unity of Great Russia (Russia), Little Russia (the Ukraine) and White Russia (Belarus). Probably under influence from its German equivalent, the eagle, from 1654 onwards, was designed with spread wings and holding a scepter and orb in its claws.
During the reign of Peter the Great, further changes were made. The collar of the newly established Order of Saint Andrew was added around the central escutcheon, and the crowns were changed to the imperial pattern after his assumption of the imperial title in 1721. At about this time, the eagle's color was changed from golden to black, which would be retained until the fall of the Russian monarchy in 1917. A final form for the eagle was adopted by imperial decree in 1729, and remained virtually unchanged until 1853.
During the early 19th century, the eagle designs diversified, and two different variants were adopted by Emperor Nicholas I. The first type represented the eagle with spread wings, one crown, with an image of St.George on the breast and with a wreath and a thunderbolt in its claws. The second type followed the 1730 pattern, with the addition of the arms of Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia on its left wing and those of Poland, the Taurica and Finland on the left one.
In 1855-57, in the course of a general heraldic reform, the eagle's appearance was changed, mirroring German patterns, while St George was made to look to the left, in accordance with the rules of Western heraldry. At the same time, the full set of emblems of Great, Medium and Minor Arms, was laid down and approved. The final revisions and changes were made in 1882-83, and are those described above.
The seal of Ivan III
Russian arms, 1589
Russian arms, 1650s
Russian arms, 1730
Russian arms under Emperor Paul, 1800
Russian arms, I. variant, 1825
Russian arms, II. variant, 1830
Great State Emblem, 1857 pattern
Emblem State
The State Emblem of the Russian Empire (Герб Российской Империи) consisted of a golden escutcheon with a black two-headed eagle crowned with two imperial crowns, over which the same third crown, enlarged, with two flying ends of the ribbon of the Order of Saint Andrew. The State Eagle held a golden scepter and golden globus cruciger. On the chest of the Eagle there was an escutcheon with the arms of Moscow, depicting Saint George, mounted and defeating the Serpent.
Great State Emblem
The depicted Great State Emblem (Большой государственный герб Российской Империи) was adopted in 1882, replacing the previous version of 1857. Tsar Alexander III first approved the relevant design on July 24, which, with minor modifications, was officially adopted on November 3.
Its central element is the State Emblem, crowned with the helmet of Alexander Nevsky, with black and golden mantling, and flanked by the archangels Michael and Gabriel. The collar of the Order of Saint Andrew is suspended from the State Emblem. The whole lies within a golden ermine mantle, crowned by the Imperial Crown of Russia and decorated with black double-headed eagles. The inscription on the canopy reads: Съ Нами Богъ ("God is with us"). Above the canopy stands the state khorugv, of gold cloth, on which is depicted the Medium State Seal. The banner is topped by the State Eagle.
Around the central composition are placed fifteen coats of arms of the various territories of the Russian Empire. Nine of these are crowned and placed on a laurel and oak wreath. From left to right, these represent, as they are included in the full imperial title: the Khanate of Kazan, the Kingdom of Poland, Tauric Chersonesos, the unified coat of arms of the Grand Principalities of Kiev, Vladimir and Novgorod, the dynastic arms of the House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov, the Grand Duchy of Finland, the Georgian principalities, and the Khanates of Siberia and Astrakhan.
The six upper escutcheons are joint depictions of various smaller principalities and oblasts. From left to right, these are: the combined arms of the northeastern regions (Perm, Volga Bulgaria, Vyatka, Kondinsky, Obdorsk), of Belorussia and Lithuania (Lithuania, Białystok, Samogitia, Polatsk, Vitebsk, Mstislavl), the provinces of Great Russia proper (Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Ryazan, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Belozersk, Udorsky), the arms of the southwestern regions (Volhyn, Podolsk, Chernigov), the Baltic provinces (Estland, Courland and Semigalia, Karelia, Livland) and Turkestan.
Middle State Emblem
The Middle State Emblem (Средний государственный герб Российской Империи) is similar to the Great State Emblem, excluding the khorugv and the six upper escutcheons. The Abbreviated Imperial Title is inscribed over the perimeter of the Seal.
Lesser State Emblem
The Lesser State Emblem (Малый государственный герб Российской Империи) depicts the imperial double-headed eagle, as used in the State Emblem, with the addition of the collar of the Order of Saint Andrew around the escutcheon of St. George, and the Arms of Astrakhan, Siberia, Georgia, Finland, Kiev-Vladimir-Novgorod, Taurica, Poland and Kazan on the wings (seen clockwise).
History and evolution of the arms
The use of the double-headed eagle as a Russian emblem goes back to the 15th century. With the fall of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the Grand Dukes of Muscovy came to see themselves as the successors of the Byzantine heritage, a notion reinforced by the marriage of Ivan III to Sophia Paleologue (hence the expression "Third Rome" for Moscow and, by extension, for the whole of Imperial Russia). Ivan adopted the golden Byzantine double-headed eagle in his seal, first documented in 1472, marking his direct claim to the Roman imperial heritage and posing as a sovereign equal and rival to the Holy Roman Empire.
The other main Russian national emblem, the image of St George slaying the dragon, is contemporaneous. In its first form, as a rider armed with a spear, it is found in the seal of Vasili I of Moscow. At the time of Ivan III, the dragon was added, but the final association with Saint George was not made until 1730, when it was described as such in an Imperial decree. Eventually, St George became the patron saint of Moscow (and, by extension, of Russia).
After the assumption of the title of Tsar by Ivan IV, the two emblems are found combined, with the eagle bearing an escutcheon depicting St George on the breast. With the establishment of the Moscow Patriarchate in 1589, a patriarchal cross was added for a time between the heads of the eagle.
In the beginning of the 17th century, with the ascension of the Romanov dynasty and its contacts with Western Europe, the image of the eagle changed. In 1625 for the first time the double-headed eagle appeared with three crowns. Traditionally, the latter have alternatively been interpreted as representing the conquered kingdoms of Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia, as stated in the first edict concerning the state seal, on 14 December 1667, or as standing for the unity of Great Russia (Russia), Little Russia (the Ukraine) and White Russia (Belarus). Probably under influence from its German equivalent, the eagle, from 1654 onwards, was designed with spread wings and holding a scepter and orb in its claws.
During the reign of Peter the Great, further changes were made. The collar of the newly established Order of Saint Andrew was added around the central escutcheon, and the crowns were changed to the imperial pattern after his assumption of the imperial title in 1721. At about this time, the eagle's color was changed from golden to black, which would be retained until the fall of the Russian monarchy in 1917. A final form for the eagle was adopted by imperial decree in 1729, and remained virtually unchanged until 1853.
During the early 19th century, the eagle designs diversified, and two different variants were adopted by Emperor Nicholas I. The first type represented the eagle with spread wings, one crown, with an image of St.George on the breast and with a wreath and a thunderbolt in its claws. The second type followed the 1730 pattern, with the addition of the arms of Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia on its left wing and those of Poland, the Taurica and Finland on the left one.
In 1855-57, in the course of a general heraldic reform, the eagle's appearance was changed, mirroring German patterns, while St George was made to look to the left, in accordance with the rules of Western heraldry. At the same time, the full set of emblems of Great, Medium and Minor Arms, was laid down and approved. The final revisions and changes were made in 1882-83, and are those described above.
The seal of Ivan III
Russian arms, 1589
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Russian arms, 1650s
Russian arms, 1730
Russian arms under Emperor Paul, 1800
Russian arms, I. variant, 1825
Russian arms, II. variant, 1830
Great State Emblem, 1857 pattern
Wednesday, December 10, 2008
IRVING BERLIN
IRVING BERLIN - I bet you thought he was German, didn’t you? I just wanted to share some info on my favorite Russian composer and it seemed like the right time of year since he won an Academy Award in 1942 for “White Christmas”. Irvin Berlin also composed “God Bless America” and here is the rest of the story...
Nationality: Russian. Source: Contemporary Authors Online, Gale, 2002. Entry Updated : 02/25/2002
The most prolific of all American composers, Irving Berlin created over one thousand songs, nineteen stage scores, and eighteen film scores. Called "the last of the troubadours" because of his simple melodies and warmhearted lyrics, Berlin forged his long and successful composing career from a musical style that was largely patriotic and sentimental. "If some of [my] songs are corny," the artist once explained to Abel Green of Variety, "then it's because they're simple, and all I know is that some of the corniest and simplest songs have lasted."
Berlin began his musical career at age eight when his father died and the lad took to the streets to help support his family. One of his first jobs was that of guide to Blind Sol, a singing beggar in New York City's Bowery. From there, Berlin began to sing at popular cafes in the neighborhood, waiting on tables and learning to pick out tunes on the piano. In 1907 the composer published his first song, "Marie From Sunny Italy," with Nick Nicholson, a pianist at the cafe. Berlin also altered his name at that time.
In 1909 Berlin's attempts as lyricist captured the attention of music publisher Ted Snyder, who hired the young composer for twenty-five dollars a week. While in Snyder's employ, Berlin continued to write his own songs, and in 1911 "Alexander's Ragtime Band" was published and made him an international celebrity. By popularizing ragtime and its accompanying dance style, Berlin was one of the first American artists to showcase jazz and make it acceptable. Within the next few years, the composer created a number of other "rags" and came to be identified in the public mind with all things ragtime.
Berlin was also a successful performer in vaudeville before World War I, first appearing on Broadway in "Up and Down Broadway" in 1910. The artist introduced many of his own compositions on the stage, but Berlin was generally more interested in writing music than in performing it. He contributed songs to many Broadway musicals, including the unofficial theme for all the Ziegfeld spectacles, "A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody." In 1914 he wrote his first complete musical score, Watch Your Step.
With the onset of World War I, Berlin was drafted into the army, where he used his musical abilities to raise money for a service center at Camp Upton. The composer's "Yip Yip Yaphank," an all-soldier show, raised over $150,000 from its Broadway run in 1918. After the war, Berlin returned to New York City and formed the Irving Berlin Music Company, a music publishing firm. Shortly thereafter, the composer erected the Music Box Theatre in 1921 in New York City and used it for several years to showcase his musical creations. Yet by 1934, the West Coast and its movie industry had begun to attract the Broadway veteran, who wrote the film score for Top Hat,starring Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. Berlin also contributed individual songs to numerous movies, including Puttin' on the Ritz and Sayonara.
At the beginning of World War II, Berlin's sense of patriotism prompted him to create another all-soldier show, "This Is the Army," which raised $10 million for the Army Emergency Relief fund. Before that, in 1939, Berlin's patriotic and philanthropic inclinations had moved him to allocate all royalties from his popular "God Bless America" to the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts of America. In addition, Berlin composed songs for the Army Ordnance Department ("Arms for the Love of America") and the Treasury Department ("Any Bonds Today?"), with profits going to each bureau.
In 1954 Berlin attempted to retire, but returned to Broadway in 1962 with a final stage score, "Mr. President." After the show's long run, the composer re-retired to his home in upstate New York, where he golfed, fished, painted, and, as he told Newsweek, "tinker[ed] at the piano" until his death in 1989. Among his career honors are an Academy Award, a Tony, and a Congressional Gold Medal of Honor.
PERSONAL INFORMATION
Family: Birth-given name, Israel Baline; born May 11, 1888, in Temum, Russia; came to the United States, 1893, naturalized citizen; died September 22, 1989, in New York, NY; son of Moses (a cantor and shochet [meat/poultry certifier]) and Leah (Lipkin) Baline; married Dorothy Goetz, February, 1913 (died July 17, 1913); married Ellin Mackay, January 4, 1926; children: Mary Ellin (Mrs. Marvin Barrett), Linda (Mrs. Edouard Emmet), Elizabeth (Mrs. Alton Peters). Education: Attended New York City public schools. Military/Wartime Service: U.S. Army, Infantry, 1917-18; became sergeant. Memberships: American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (charter member; director, 1914-18), Masons (Shriners), Elk, Lambs, Friars, City Athletic Club.
AWARDS
Academy Award for best song from Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, 1942, for "White Christmas;" Medal of Merit, 1945, for "This Is the Army"; Congressional Gold Medal of Honor, February 11, 1955, "in recognition of his services in composing many patriotic songs including `God Bless America'"; Antoinette Perry Award from League of New York Theatres and Producers, April, 1963, for "distinguished contribution to the musical theatre for many years." Awarded D.Mus. from Bucknell University, 1939, Legion of Honor (France), 1947, D.Mus. from Temple University, 1954, D.H. from Fordham University, 1969, and Medal of Freedom, 1977.
Nationality: Russian. Source: Contemporary Authors Online, Gale, 2002. Entry Updated : 02/25/2002
The most prolific of all American composers, Irving Berlin created over one thousand songs, nineteen stage scores, and eighteen film scores. Called "the last of the troubadours" because of his simple melodies and warmhearted lyrics, Berlin forged his long and successful composing career from a musical style that was largely patriotic and sentimental. "If some of [my] songs are corny," the artist once explained to Abel Green of Variety, "then it's because they're simple, and all I know is that some of the corniest and simplest songs have lasted."
Berlin began his musical career at age eight when his father died and the lad took to the streets to help support his family. One of his first jobs was that of guide to Blind Sol, a singing beggar in New York City's Bowery. From there, Berlin began to sing at popular cafes in the neighborhood, waiting on tables and learning to pick out tunes on the piano. In 1907 the composer published his first song, "Marie From Sunny Italy," with Nick Nicholson, a pianist at the cafe. Berlin also altered his name at that time.
In 1909 Berlin's attempts as lyricist captured the attention of music publisher Ted Snyder, who hired the young composer for twenty-five dollars a week. While in Snyder's employ, Berlin continued to write his own songs, and in 1911 "Alexander's Ragtime Band" was published and made him an international celebrity. By popularizing ragtime and its accompanying dance style, Berlin was one of the first American artists to showcase jazz and make it acceptable. Within the next few years, the composer created a number of other "rags" and came to be identified in the public mind with all things ragtime.
Berlin was also a successful performer in vaudeville before World War I, first appearing on Broadway in "Up and Down Broadway" in 1910. The artist introduced many of his own compositions on the stage, but Berlin was generally more interested in writing music than in performing it. He contributed songs to many Broadway musicals, including the unofficial theme for all the Ziegfeld spectacles, "A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody." In 1914 he wrote his first complete musical score, Watch Your Step.
With the onset of World War I, Berlin was drafted into the army, where he used his musical abilities to raise money for a service center at Camp Upton. The composer's "Yip Yip Yaphank," an all-soldier show, raised over $150,000 from its Broadway run in 1918. After the war, Berlin returned to New York City and formed the Irving Berlin Music Company, a music publishing firm. Shortly thereafter, the composer erected the Music Box Theatre in 1921 in New York City and used it for several years to showcase his musical creations. Yet by 1934, the West Coast and its movie industry had begun to attract the Broadway veteran, who wrote the film score for Top Hat,starring Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. Berlin also contributed individual songs to numerous movies, including Puttin' on the Ritz and Sayonara.
At the beginning of World War II, Berlin's sense of patriotism prompted him to create another all-soldier show, "This Is the Army," which raised $10 million for the Army Emergency Relief fund. Before that, in 1939, Berlin's patriotic and philanthropic inclinations had moved him to allocate all royalties from his popular "God Bless America" to the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts of America. In addition, Berlin composed songs for the Army Ordnance Department ("Arms for the Love of America") and the Treasury Department ("Any Bonds Today?"), with profits going to each bureau.
In 1954 Berlin attempted to retire, but returned to Broadway in 1962 with a final stage score, "Mr. President." After the show's long run, the composer re-retired to his home in upstate New York, where he golfed, fished, painted, and, as he told Newsweek, "tinker[ed] at the piano" until his death in 1989. Among his career honors are an Academy Award, a Tony, and a Congressional Gold Medal of Honor.
PERSONAL INFORMATION
Family: Birth-given name, Israel Baline; born May 11, 1888, in Temum, Russia; came to the United States, 1893, naturalized citizen; died September 22, 1989, in New York, NY; son of Moses (a cantor and shochet [meat/poultry certifier]) and Leah (Lipkin) Baline; married Dorothy Goetz, February, 1913 (died July 17, 1913); married Ellin Mackay, January 4, 1926; children: Mary Ellin (Mrs. Marvin Barrett), Linda (Mrs. Edouard Emmet), Elizabeth (Mrs. Alton Peters). Education: Attended New York City public schools. Military/Wartime Service: U.S. Army, Infantry, 1917-18; became sergeant. Memberships: American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (charter member; director, 1914-18), Masons (Shriners), Elk, Lambs, Friars, City Athletic Club.
AWARDS
Academy Award for best song from Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, 1942, for "White Christmas;" Medal of Merit, 1945, for "This Is the Army"; Congressional Gold Medal of Honor, February 11, 1955, "in recognition of his services in composing many patriotic songs including `God Bless America'"; Antoinette Perry Award from League of New York Theatres and Producers, April, 1963, for "distinguished contribution to the musical theatre for many years." Awarded D.Mus. from Bucknell University, 1939, Legion of Honor (France), 1947, D.Mus. from Temple University, 1954, D.H. from Fordham University, 1969, and Medal of Freedom, 1977.
Thursday, November 13, 2008
UNIT 4
Domovoi - Russian House Spirit
Ever asked yourself if there’s something spooky lurking under the stairs? Or got the feeling you weren’t quite ‘home alone’? In Western culture, film and fiction, house spirits usually have sinister associations, connected to spiteful poltergeists or the tormented souls of previous inhabitants. Their very presence points to something gone far wrong with the natural way of things. The Russian domovoi is rather a different proposition, as it’s actually supposed to share your home with you.The domovoi is thought to inhabit the house, and is often depicted as living in or around the stone oven, which is the domestic heart of the house (although one TV animation set in a modern flat has him living in the rubbish bin!). Always a male spirit, he functions as a kind of supernatural head of household, and accordingly is treated with a great deal of respect. He is to be given offerings, spoken to kindly and respectfully and his wishes are to be followed with regard to household management. Working out the detailed preferences of an ethereal being could be time-consuming and sceptics would say pointless, nevertheless in former times families spent a great deal of thought on this very venture. And once he was pleased, very often there was still his wife, the domovikha, to consider.So why bother? First of all, the domovoi has a great positive power attributed to him, and keeping him happy and content binds him to the family and encourages him to endow prosperity and health upon them. The domovoi is treasured as a member of the family, and should even be invited to come with you if you move house. Conversely, an angered domovoi can cause animals to sicken, marriages to fail, and also manifest physically like a poltergeist – ‘haunting’ the family concerned. The other portrayal of the domovoi is as a whimsical character who is unpredictable and likes to play tricks and stir things up sometimes, by moving things and animals about, giving people a fright etc. Where does the domovoi come from? The belief is certainly very ancient, pre-dating Christianity’s presence in Russian culture. Anthropologists such as Linda J. Ivanits view the domovoi as evolving from an ancient ancestor cult, with the spirit therefore bound by blood ties to the family he watches over. I find interesting the modern depiction of the sprite – you can buy souvenir domovoi, which are cute, ugly little figures made of sacking with straw hair and often a broom. It reminds me of fairies in British culture -a modern emasculation of an older and more potent idea. Anyway, when you’re off to bed tonight, don’t forget to say night night to your domovoi – just in case.
Ever asked yourself if there’s something spooky lurking under the stairs? Or got the feeling you weren’t quite ‘home alone’? In Western culture, film and fiction, house spirits usually have sinister associations, connected to spiteful poltergeists or the tormented souls of previous inhabitants. Their very presence points to something gone far wrong with the natural way of things. The Russian domovoi is rather a different proposition, as it’s actually supposed to share your home with you.The domovoi is thought to inhabit the house, and is often depicted as living in or around the stone oven, which is the domestic heart of the house (although one TV animation set in a modern flat has him living in the rubbish bin!). Always a male spirit, he functions as a kind of supernatural head of household, and accordingly is treated with a great deal of respect. He is to be given offerings, spoken to kindly and respectfully and his wishes are to be followed with regard to household management. Working out the detailed preferences of an ethereal being could be time-consuming and sceptics would say pointless, nevertheless in former times families spent a great deal of thought on this very venture. And once he was pleased, very often there was still his wife, the domovikha, to consider.So why bother? First of all, the domovoi has a great positive power attributed to him, and keeping him happy and content binds him to the family and encourages him to endow prosperity and health upon them. The domovoi is treasured as a member of the family, and should even be invited to come with you if you move house. Conversely, an angered domovoi can cause animals to sicken, marriages to fail, and also manifest physically like a poltergeist – ‘haunting’ the family concerned. The other portrayal of the domovoi is as a whimsical character who is unpredictable and likes to play tricks and stir things up sometimes, by moving things and animals about, giving people a fright etc. Where does the domovoi come from? The belief is certainly very ancient, pre-dating Christianity’s presence in Russian culture. Anthropologists such as Linda J. Ivanits view the domovoi as evolving from an ancient ancestor cult, with the spirit therefore bound by blood ties to the family he watches over. I find interesting the modern depiction of the sprite – you can buy souvenir domovoi, which are cute, ugly little figures made of sacking with straw hair and often a broom. It reminds me of fairies in British culture -a modern emasculation of an older and more potent idea. Anyway, when you’re off to bed tonight, don’t forget to say night night to your domovoi – just in case.
Monday, October 27, 2008
RUSSIAN NESTING DOLLS
1. The very beginning of Russian matryoshka
The first Russian nesting doll (matryoshka) was born in 1890 in the workshop "Children's Education" situated in Abramtsevo estate new Moscow. The owner of Abramtsevo was Sava Mamontov - industrialist and a patron of the arts.
The first Russian nesting doll!
The end of the 19 century in Russia was a time of great economic and cultural development. Mamontov was one of the first who patronized artist who were possessed by the idea of the creation of a new Russian style. Many famous Russian artists worked along with folk craftsmen in workshops Mamontov.
7-piece matryoshka "Fukuruma", Japan. Late 1890s(to see the larger image click on the picture)
Once at a tradition Saturday meeting somebody brought a funny Japanese figurine of a good-nature bold head old man Fukuruma. The doll consisted of some other figurines nestled one another. It had 7 figurines. There was a legend that the first doll of such type on Island Honshu where Fukuruma was brought from was made by unknown Russian monk.
Really, this type of nesting toys was well known before - Russian crafters turned wooden Easter eggs, apples.
2. Why it is called "Matryoshka"
Russian wooden dolls within smaller dolls were called matryoshka. In old Russian among peasants the name Matryona or Matriosha was a very popular female name. Scholars says this name has a Latin root "mater" and means "Mother". This name was associated with the image of of a mother of a big peasant family who was very healthy and had a portly figure.
Subsequently, it became a symbolic name and was used specially to image brightly painted wooden figurines made in a such way that they could taken apart to reveal smaller dolls fitting inside one another.
3. Sergiev Posad style of Russian nesting dolls
Sergiev Posad was a place where the first nesting doll was made by artist Sergei Maliutin and a turner Vassiliy Zviozdochkin. This old Russian town is located 73 km (about 45 miles) from Moscow. It has grown up around famous Trinity-St.Sergius Monastery. In 1340 the monk Sergius founded a small temple lost in the midst of the wild thick forests. In time it was developed into the biggest monastery of Russia.Arts and crafts were flourished in the towns and villages who surrounded the monastery. Wooden toys, which were known as "Trinity" toys, became particularly popular. According to the legend the first "Trinity" wooden toy was made by the Prior of the Monastery, Sergius Radonezhsky. Sergiev Posad was a colorful, truly Russian town. The Monastery lent a unique peculiarity to it. The huge marketplace in front of the Monastery was almost always full of different people: merchants, monks, pilgrims and craftsmen were milling around.
"An old man", 8-p. matryoshka, beginning of 20 century Professional artist made the first painted matryoshka of Sergiev Posad just for fun. That is why these dolls are so expressive and won admiration of adults and children. In the initial period of matryoshka development particularly attention was paid to faces of matryoshka, clothes were not detailed painted. Such dolls depicted different character and types: peasants, merchants, and noblemen.
The faces of the early matryoshkas of Sergiev Posad were oval and strict. The heads of many matryoshkas were greatly enlarged that's why the face dominated the body. These dolls look primitive because of this
"Getman", 8-p. doll, beginning of 1900.
disproportion but at the same time they are very expressive. The first politic matryoshka, the prototype of famous "Gorbi doll", was born in that time. Matryoshkas like "German" (German was a political leader Governor of old time Ukraine, which was a part of Russian Empire) gave a soil to artist to design modern politic dolls. Sometimes matryoshka portrayed the whole family with numerous children and members of households. Some matryoshkas were devoted to historical themes. The described boyars (old Russia noblemen), legendary heroes bogatirs (warriors), some dolls were devoted to book character.
Matryoshka "The tale about turnip", 8-p., beginning of 20 century.
The matryoshka of Sergiev Posad consisted of 2 to 24 pieces. The most popular dolls consisted of 3, 8 and 12 pieces. In 1913 a 48-pieces matryoshka made by N. Bulichev was displayed at the Exhibition of Toys in St. Petersburg. Development of matryoshka greatly depended on turners' skill. Highly skilled masters turned matryoshkas with very thin sides, which was considered to be a special art of matryoshka turning. Apparently, painting was secondary. Professional artists who painted the first turned dolls did not treat it seriously enough. It was sort of entertainment. There are some matryoshkas - caricatures in the Museum Estate Polenovo. From other hand there were many independent workshops of Sergiev PosadWhere skilled artisans worked and they crated their own style of Russian matryoshka. Folk art tradition was very important in the development of the present Sergiev Posad style. Due to widest layer of folk culture, matryoshka continued to exist even after Russian style, developed by Russian professional artists was forgotten. Icon painters of Sergiev Posad contributed a lot to matryoshka pictorial style. Anthropomorphism, in other words, resemblance to a human being of the Russia "take apart" dolls turned out to be the continuation of ancient Russian art tradition. An artist focused mainly on the figure of a person, his or her face. This tradition of Russian ancient art came from Byzantine Empire, which had borrowed it from ancient Greek culture. The connection of certain early type of the matryoshkas of Sergiev Posad with the tradition of the local icon painting school is confirmed both stylistically and virtually. Along with the icons, matryoshkas were painted as well in the icon painting school of Sergiev Posad.
The first Russian nesting doll (matryoshka) was born in 1890 in the workshop "Children's Education" situated in Abramtsevo estate new Moscow. The owner of Abramtsevo was Sava Mamontov - industrialist and a patron of the arts.
The first Russian nesting doll!
The end of the 19 century in Russia was a time of great economic and cultural development. Mamontov was one of the first who patronized artist who were possessed by the idea of the creation of a new Russian style. Many famous Russian artists worked along with folk craftsmen in workshops Mamontov.
7-piece matryoshka "Fukuruma", Japan. Late 1890s(to see the larger image click on the picture)
Once at a tradition Saturday meeting somebody brought a funny Japanese figurine of a good-nature bold head old man Fukuruma. The doll consisted of some other figurines nestled one another. It had 7 figurines. There was a legend that the first doll of such type on Island Honshu where Fukuruma was brought from was made by unknown Russian monk.
Really, this type of nesting toys was well known before - Russian crafters turned wooden Easter eggs, apples.
2. Why it is called "Matryoshka"
Russian wooden dolls within smaller dolls were called matryoshka. In old Russian among peasants the name Matryona or Matriosha was a very popular female name. Scholars says this name has a Latin root "mater" and means "Mother". This name was associated with the image of of a mother of a big peasant family who was very healthy and had a portly figure.
Subsequently, it became a symbolic name and was used specially to image brightly painted wooden figurines made in a such way that they could taken apart to reveal smaller dolls fitting inside one another.
3. Sergiev Posad style of Russian nesting dolls
Sergiev Posad was a place where the first nesting doll was made by artist Sergei Maliutin and a turner Vassiliy Zviozdochkin. This old Russian town is located 73 km (about 45 miles) from Moscow. It has grown up around famous Trinity-St.Sergius Monastery. In 1340 the monk Sergius founded a small temple lost in the midst of the wild thick forests. In time it was developed into the biggest monastery of Russia.Arts and crafts were flourished in the towns and villages who surrounded the monastery. Wooden toys, which were known as "Trinity" toys, became particularly popular. According to the legend the first "Trinity" wooden toy was made by the Prior of the Monastery, Sergius Radonezhsky. Sergiev Posad was a colorful, truly Russian town. The Monastery lent a unique peculiarity to it. The huge marketplace in front of the Monastery was almost always full of different people: merchants, monks, pilgrims and craftsmen were milling around.
"An old man", 8-p. matryoshka, beginning of 20 century Professional artist made the first painted matryoshka of Sergiev Posad just for fun. That is why these dolls are so expressive and won admiration of adults and children. In the initial period of matryoshka development particularly attention was paid to faces of matryoshka, clothes were not detailed painted. Such dolls depicted different character and types: peasants, merchants, and noblemen.
The faces of the early matryoshkas of Sergiev Posad were oval and strict. The heads of many matryoshkas were greatly enlarged that's why the face dominated the body. These dolls look primitive because of this
"Getman", 8-p. doll, beginning of 1900.
disproportion but at the same time they are very expressive. The first politic matryoshka, the prototype of famous "Gorbi doll", was born in that time. Matryoshkas like "German" (German was a political leader Governor of old time Ukraine, which was a part of Russian Empire) gave a soil to artist to design modern politic dolls. Sometimes matryoshka portrayed the whole family with numerous children and members of households. Some matryoshkas were devoted to historical themes. The described boyars (old Russia noblemen), legendary heroes bogatirs (warriors), some dolls were devoted to book character.
Matryoshka "The tale about turnip", 8-p., beginning of 20 century.
The matryoshka of Sergiev Posad consisted of 2 to 24 pieces. The most popular dolls consisted of 3, 8 and 12 pieces. In 1913 a 48-pieces matryoshka made by N. Bulichev was displayed at the Exhibition of Toys in St. Petersburg. Development of matryoshka greatly depended on turners' skill. Highly skilled masters turned matryoshkas with very thin sides, which was considered to be a special art of matryoshka turning. Apparently, painting was secondary. Professional artists who painted the first turned dolls did not treat it seriously enough. It was sort of entertainment. There are some matryoshkas - caricatures in the Museum Estate Polenovo. From other hand there were many independent workshops of Sergiev PosadWhere skilled artisans worked and they crated their own style of Russian matryoshka. Folk art tradition was very important in the development of the present Sergiev Posad style. Due to widest layer of folk culture, matryoshka continued to exist even after Russian style, developed by Russian professional artists was forgotten. Icon painters of Sergiev Posad contributed a lot to matryoshka pictorial style. Anthropomorphism, in other words, resemblance to a human being of the Russia "take apart" dolls turned out to be the continuation of ancient Russian art tradition. An artist focused mainly on the figure of a person, his or her face. This tradition of Russian ancient art came from Byzantine Empire, which had borrowed it from ancient Greek culture. The connection of certain early type of the matryoshkas of Sergiev Posad with the tradition of the local icon painting school is confirmed both stylistically and virtually. Along with the icons, matryoshkas were painted as well in the icon painting school of Sergiev Posad.
DURKA
Introduction
Durak is undoubtedly the most popular card game in Russia. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that every Russian who plays cards knows this game. "Durak" means fool, the fool in this game being the loser - the player who is left with cards after everyone else has run out. The game described on this page is properly called "Podkidnoy Durak", which means "fool with throwing in". This name refers to the fact that after an attack is begun, it can be continued by "throwing in" further cards whose ranks match those already played. Pages describing other types of Durak will be added soon.
Players
Podkidnoy Durak is best for four people playing in teams, two against two, with partners sitting opposite each other. It can, however, be played by any number of people from two to six, playing as individuals, or by six players in two teams of three, sitting alternately.
Cards
A 36 card pack, the cards in each suit ranking from high to low: ace, king, queen, jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6.
Objective
This game has no winner - only a loser, or a losing team if played with partnerships. At the start, each player is dealt six cards, which are played in a series of bouts of attack and defence. When a player's hand is reduced to fewer than six cards it is replenished from the talon of undealt cards. After the talon is exhausted, there is no more replenishment and the aim is to get rid of all the cards from your hand. The last player left holding cards is the loser. This player is the fool (durak) and is ridiculed by the other players. In the partnership game, when one team has played all of their cards, the team which is left holding cards loses.
Durak is almost never played for money. Sometimes matchsticks are used to keep track of how many times each player or team has lost. It can be agreed that the player or team that loses most games has to pay a forfeit, such as crawling under the table and crowing like a cockerel.
Deal
Any player may deal the first hand. Subsequently each hand is dealt by the loser of the previous hand. The dealer shuffles and deals out the cards face down to the players one at a time, clockwise, until everyone has a hand of six cards. The next card is placed face up in the centre of the table; its suit determines trumps. The remaining undealt cards are placed in a stack face down on top of the trump card, but crosswise so that the rank and value of the trump remain visible. These central cards are called the prikup (talon).
Note that dealing is traditionally regarded as menial work, undertaken as a punishment by the loser of the previous hand. Only the dealer handles the cards - they are not usually cut, as in other card games. If any other player touches the cards they become the fool and take over the job of dealing. Sometimes the dealer may offer the cards to be cut after shuffling; if the player to whom they are offered falls into the trap of cutting the cards, that player becomes the dealer and takes over the role of the fool. Hence the expression: "Shapku s duraka ne snimayut" ("One should not take the hat away from a fool").
With six players and 36 cards there will be no talon. All the cards are dealt to the players and the dealer's last card is turned face up to determine the trump suit. This trump is part of the dealer's hand and is picked up along with the dealer's other five cards when everyone has had a chance to look at it.
The players pick up their cards and look at them. In the first hand of a session, the holder of the lowest trump plays first. If anyone has the trump 6 they show it to prove they are entitled to begin. If no one has the trump 6, then the holder of the trump 7 will start; if no one has that, the trump 8 and so on. The first play does not have to include the lowest trump - the holder of the lowest trump can begin with any card. In the second and subsequent hands of a session, the player to the left of the dealer begins the play.
The Play
Attack and Defence
The play consists of a series of bouts. During each bout there is an attacker (who may be helped by other players) and a defender (who defends alone).
The attacker begins by playing any card from hand face up on the table in front of the defender. To beat off the attack the defender will have to beat this and all subsequent attacking cards. A card which is not a trump can be beaten by playing a higher card of the same suit, or by any trump. A trump card can only be beaten by playing a higher trump. Note that a non-trump attack can always be beaten by a trump, even if the defender also holds cards in the suit of the attack card - there is no requirement to "follow suit".
Alternatively, if the defender cannot or does not wish to beat off the attack, the defender simply picks up the attack card, which then becomes part of the defender's hand; in this case the attack has succeeded.
If the defender beats the first attack card, the attacker can continue the attack by playing another card. If the defender beats this second attack card too, the attack can be continued with further cards, subject to the following conditions:
i) each new attack card must be of the same rank as some card already played during the current bout - either an attack card or a card played by the defender;
ii) the total number of cards played by the attackers during a bout must never exceed six;
iii) if the defender had fewer than six cards before the bout, the number of cards played by the attackers must not be more than the number of cards in the defender's hand.
The attack cards are placed separately face up in front of the defender, and each card played by the defender is placed face up on top of the card it is beating, slightly offset so that the values of all cards can be seen.
The defender succeeds in beating off the whole attack if either:
a) the defender has beaten all the attack cards played so far, and none of the defender's opponents is able and willing to continue the attack;
b) the defender succeeds in beating six attacking cards;
c) the defender (having begun the defence holding fewer than six cards) has no cards left in hand, all the defender's cards having been used to beat attack cards.
When an attack is beaten off, all the cards played during the bout (the attacking cards and the defender's cards) are thrown face down on a discard heap and are not used again during the play of this deal. The defender becomes the attacker for the next bout, and the player to the new attacker's left is the new defender.
The player who begins the attack is the principal attacker, but other opponents of the defender can join in the attack if they have suitable cards to attack with. The principal attacker always has priority - the others can only join in with permission. For instance, the principal attacker can say "Wait, I am playing" or "Go ahead", or even ask the others questions such as whether they have a trump to attack with, and if not continue the attack himself. In the individual game with four players, the second attacker is the player to the left of the defender, and this player also has priority over the third attacker, who is the player opposite the defender. However, scope for dialogue here is limited in that the second attacker can stop the third attacker from playing, but is not allowed to ask him about what cards he has or what card he should play.
When 5 or 6 people play as individuals, it is usual to agree that only the players sitting next to the defender on either side are allowed to take part in an attack. Without this rule, there would be so many attackers that the first defender would be placed at a great disadvantage.
The defender always defends alone. When playing in teams you can do nothing while your partner is defending. You cannot help to beat off the attack, nor can you attack your partner, nor can you give cards to your partner when an attack succeeds. You can only sit and watch.
If at any stage, the defender is unable to or does not wish to beat one of the attack cards, the defender must pick up all the cards played during the bout - both the attacking cards and the cards used to beat them. All these cards become part of the defender's hand. In addition, the players who were entitled to take part in the attack can give to the defender (face up) any further cards which they could legally have played if the attack had continued. These extra cards must also be added to the defender's hand. The bout is then over. Since the attack has succeeded, the defender does not get a turn to attack. The next attacker is the player to the left of the unsuccessful defender, and the new defender is the player to the left of the new attacker as usual.
Accoring to conditions (ii) and (iii) mentioned above, the total number of cards played by the attackers is limited to six, or to the number of cards in the defender's hand, whichever is less. The principal attacker has priority, followed by the other attackers in clockwise order. If the attackers play too many cards, the defender can choose which cards to beat or pick up, giving the remainder back to the attackers. The same applies if after the defender picks up, the attackers give too many additional cards: the defender only accepts six attack cards in total (including any beaten cards); the remainder are given back to the attackers.
In practice an attacker may play several cards at once, provided that all are legal. For example an attacker might begin by playing two sixes, rather than playing one six, waiting for it to be beaten or picked up, and then producing the other six. There is no real point in doing playing more than one card at a time, except to speed up the game; the same cards could equally well be played singly. In fact, attacking with more than one card gives the defender the advantage of seeing more of the attack before deciding whether and how to try to beat the cards.
Drawing from the Talon
After a bout is complete, all players who have fewer than six cards must if possible replenish their hands to six by drawing sufficient cards from the top of the talon. The attacker replenishes first, then the other players who joined in the attack, in clockwise order, and finally the defender.
If there are not enough cards in the talon to go around, cards are drawn as usual until it is exhausted. It may be that some of the later players do not draw any cards. The face up trump is drawn as the last card of the talon. After the talon is exhausted, the play continues without drawing.
If you are dealt the lowest trump (the six) or if you draw it from the talon, you are allowed to exchange it for the face up trump, placing your six of trumps under the talon and adding the turned up trump to your hand, at any time before the talon is exhausted. The six of trumps can only be exchanged by its original holder; if you acquire it from another player (as one of the cards you pick up when attacked) you cannot exchange it for the turned up trump.
If a player draws the trump 6 while replenishing, it can be swapped for the turned up trump even if that would be drawn by another player before the next bout. Even if another player has already drawn the turned up trump, the player who drew the six can still demand to exchange it provided that the bout after the one which exhausted the talon has not yet begun.
Sequence of Play
The general direction of play is clockwise, and for the first bout, the attacker is the player to the dealer's left. The defender is the next player in turn after the attacker - normally the player to the attacker's left. If an attack is beaten off, the defender becomes the next attacker, and the next player in turn is the new defender. If an attack succeeds, the defender does not get a turn to attack. The new attacker is the next player in turn after the defender, and the new defender is the player after that.
Examples: In the following examples there are four players: North and South are partners against East and West. Hearts are trumps and it is West's turn to attack North.
West holds K, J, 7, 9, 8, Q; North holds 10, 10, 8, 6, A, 10; East holds Q, 8, Q, K, 7, 6. West attacks with the 7 and North beats it with the 10. East can now continue the attack with the 7, which North beats with the 10. East and West have no more sevens or tens to play, so North has beaten off the attack. The four played cards are discarded from the game. West draws the top card from the talon, East draws the next one, and then North draws two. Now it is North's turn to attack East.
West holds K, J, 7, 9, 8, Q; North holds A, 10, 8, 6, A, 9; East holds Q, 8, Q, K, 7, 6. West attacks with the 7 and North cannot beat it, so has to pick it up. East has the 7 so gives this to North as well. West takes the top card from the talon and East takes the next one. The attack succeeded, so it is now East's turn to attack South.
West holds K, J, 7, K, 7, J; North holds Q, 10, J, J, 9, K; East holds 9, 7, 6, A, 9, 7. West attacks with 7 which North beats with 10; East continues with 7 (beaten by J) and 7 (beaten by K); now West can play the J (beaten by Q) and J (trumped with 9). At this point East could play the K, K or 7 and West could play the 9 or 9, but they have already attacked 5 times so they are only allowed to play one more card. In fact the 9 is the best choice, since North has already trumped a diamond and leading another is likely to put North under most pressure. As it happens, whichever card East and West play, North can play the J, beating off the attack. The twelve played cards are discarded. West draws from the talon first, then East, and finally North takes 6 new cards from the talon. North now attacks East.
West holds A, Q, J, K, K, A; North holds K, 9, 8, 7, 10, 9; East holds 7, 6, 7, J, 8, 7. West attacks with the J, which North beats with the K. West continues with the K and North decides to pick up (North could legally trump with the 7, but in this case East's sevens would be played next, and North would eventually have to pick up these low cards). When North picks up the jack and two kings, West could give North the K and East the J in addition, but in fact East and West choose to keep these good cards. West draws two cards from the talon and then East attacks South.
The Endgame
As players run out of cards they drop out of the play, and the other players continue. The effect of this on the sequence of play is slightly different depending on whether the game is being played individually or with partnerships:
In the individual game, when a player has no cards the turn simply passes over that player to the next person in clockwise rotation who still has cards.
In the four player partnership game, when someone has no cards, their turn is taken by their partner.
In the six player partnership game, as the players run out of cards, the remaining players of each partnership continue to play in order, skipping any member of the team who has no cards.
The Result
When playing as individuals, the game continues after the talon is exhausted until at the end of a bout, only one player has any cards left. This player is the loser (the fool) and must deal the next hand.
When playing with teams, the game ends when at the end of a bout, all the players of one team have run out of cards. The team which still have cards are the losers. The losing team is free to decide which of them should be given the job of dealing the next hand, even if only one of them was actually left with cards. If the players are of unequal skill, it will be advantageous for the weaker player to deal, so that the stronger player is the first defender.
Note that the game can only end at the end of an bout. If after the final attack has been beaten off, no one has any cards left, the game is a draw. This can happen when one team attacks with all their remaining cards, and all of the defender's cards are used to beat off the attack. If at this point no one has any more cards and the talon is exhausted, the game is a draw, and the loser of the previous hand deals again - hence the saying: "Staryy durak khuzhe novykh dvukh" ("An old fool is worse than two new ones").
Durak is undoubtedly the most popular card game in Russia. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that every Russian who plays cards knows this game. "Durak" means fool, the fool in this game being the loser - the player who is left with cards after everyone else has run out. The game described on this page is properly called "Podkidnoy Durak", which means "fool with throwing in". This name refers to the fact that after an attack is begun, it can be continued by "throwing in" further cards whose ranks match those already played. Pages describing other types of Durak will be added soon.
Players
Podkidnoy Durak is best for four people playing in teams, two against two, with partners sitting opposite each other. It can, however, be played by any number of people from two to six, playing as individuals, or by six players in two teams of three, sitting alternately.
Cards
A 36 card pack, the cards in each suit ranking from high to low: ace, king, queen, jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6.
Objective
This game has no winner - only a loser, or a losing team if played with partnerships. At the start, each player is dealt six cards, which are played in a series of bouts of attack and defence. When a player's hand is reduced to fewer than six cards it is replenished from the talon of undealt cards. After the talon is exhausted, there is no more replenishment and the aim is to get rid of all the cards from your hand. The last player left holding cards is the loser. This player is the fool (durak) and is ridiculed by the other players. In the partnership game, when one team has played all of their cards, the team which is left holding cards loses.
Durak is almost never played for money. Sometimes matchsticks are used to keep track of how many times each player or team has lost. It can be agreed that the player or team that loses most games has to pay a forfeit, such as crawling under the table and crowing like a cockerel.
Deal
Any player may deal the first hand. Subsequently each hand is dealt by the loser of the previous hand. The dealer shuffles and deals out the cards face down to the players one at a time, clockwise, until everyone has a hand of six cards. The next card is placed face up in the centre of the table; its suit determines trumps. The remaining undealt cards are placed in a stack face down on top of the trump card, but crosswise so that the rank and value of the trump remain visible. These central cards are called the prikup (talon).
Note that dealing is traditionally regarded as menial work, undertaken as a punishment by the loser of the previous hand. Only the dealer handles the cards - they are not usually cut, as in other card games. If any other player touches the cards they become the fool and take over the job of dealing. Sometimes the dealer may offer the cards to be cut after shuffling; if the player to whom they are offered falls into the trap of cutting the cards, that player becomes the dealer and takes over the role of the fool. Hence the expression: "Shapku s duraka ne snimayut" ("One should not take the hat away from a fool").
With six players and 36 cards there will be no talon. All the cards are dealt to the players and the dealer's last card is turned face up to determine the trump suit. This trump is part of the dealer's hand and is picked up along with the dealer's other five cards when everyone has had a chance to look at it.
The players pick up their cards and look at them. In the first hand of a session, the holder of the lowest trump plays first. If anyone has the trump 6 they show it to prove they are entitled to begin. If no one has the trump 6, then the holder of the trump 7 will start; if no one has that, the trump 8 and so on. The first play does not have to include the lowest trump - the holder of the lowest trump can begin with any card. In the second and subsequent hands of a session, the player to the left of the dealer begins the play.
The Play
Attack and Defence
The play consists of a series of bouts. During each bout there is an attacker (who may be helped by other players) and a defender (who defends alone).
The attacker begins by playing any card from hand face up on the table in front of the defender. To beat off the attack the defender will have to beat this and all subsequent attacking cards. A card which is not a trump can be beaten by playing a higher card of the same suit, or by any trump. A trump card can only be beaten by playing a higher trump. Note that a non-trump attack can always be beaten by a trump, even if the defender also holds cards in the suit of the attack card - there is no requirement to "follow suit".
Alternatively, if the defender cannot or does not wish to beat off the attack, the defender simply picks up the attack card, which then becomes part of the defender's hand; in this case the attack has succeeded.
If the defender beats the first attack card, the attacker can continue the attack by playing another card. If the defender beats this second attack card too, the attack can be continued with further cards, subject to the following conditions:
i) each new attack card must be of the same rank as some card already played during the current bout - either an attack card or a card played by the defender;
ii) the total number of cards played by the attackers during a bout must never exceed six;
iii) if the defender had fewer than six cards before the bout, the number of cards played by the attackers must not be more than the number of cards in the defender's hand.
The attack cards are placed separately face up in front of the defender, and each card played by the defender is placed face up on top of the card it is beating, slightly offset so that the values of all cards can be seen.
The defender succeeds in beating off the whole attack if either:
a) the defender has beaten all the attack cards played so far, and none of the defender's opponents is able and willing to continue the attack;
b) the defender succeeds in beating six attacking cards;
c) the defender (having begun the defence holding fewer than six cards) has no cards left in hand, all the defender's cards having been used to beat attack cards.
When an attack is beaten off, all the cards played during the bout (the attacking cards and the defender's cards) are thrown face down on a discard heap and are not used again during the play of this deal. The defender becomes the attacker for the next bout, and the player to the new attacker's left is the new defender.
The player who begins the attack is the principal attacker, but other opponents of the defender can join in the attack if they have suitable cards to attack with. The principal attacker always has priority - the others can only join in with permission. For instance, the principal attacker can say "Wait, I am playing" or "Go ahead", or even ask the others questions such as whether they have a trump to attack with, and if not continue the attack himself. In the individual game with four players, the second attacker is the player to the left of the defender, and this player also has priority over the third attacker, who is the player opposite the defender. However, scope for dialogue here is limited in that the second attacker can stop the third attacker from playing, but is not allowed to ask him about what cards he has or what card he should play.
When 5 or 6 people play as individuals, it is usual to agree that only the players sitting next to the defender on either side are allowed to take part in an attack. Without this rule, there would be so many attackers that the first defender would be placed at a great disadvantage.
The defender always defends alone. When playing in teams you can do nothing while your partner is defending. You cannot help to beat off the attack, nor can you attack your partner, nor can you give cards to your partner when an attack succeeds. You can only sit and watch.
If at any stage, the defender is unable to or does not wish to beat one of the attack cards, the defender must pick up all the cards played during the bout - both the attacking cards and the cards used to beat them. All these cards become part of the defender's hand. In addition, the players who were entitled to take part in the attack can give to the defender (face up) any further cards which they could legally have played if the attack had continued. These extra cards must also be added to the defender's hand. The bout is then over. Since the attack has succeeded, the defender does not get a turn to attack. The next attacker is the player to the left of the unsuccessful defender, and the new defender is the player to the left of the new attacker as usual.
Accoring to conditions (ii) and (iii) mentioned above, the total number of cards played by the attackers is limited to six, or to the number of cards in the defender's hand, whichever is less. The principal attacker has priority, followed by the other attackers in clockwise order. If the attackers play too many cards, the defender can choose which cards to beat or pick up, giving the remainder back to the attackers. The same applies if after the defender picks up, the attackers give too many additional cards: the defender only accepts six attack cards in total (including any beaten cards); the remainder are given back to the attackers.
In practice an attacker may play several cards at once, provided that all are legal. For example an attacker might begin by playing two sixes, rather than playing one six, waiting for it to be beaten or picked up, and then producing the other six. There is no real point in doing playing more than one card at a time, except to speed up the game; the same cards could equally well be played singly. In fact, attacking with more than one card gives the defender the advantage of seeing more of the attack before deciding whether and how to try to beat the cards.
Drawing from the Talon
After a bout is complete, all players who have fewer than six cards must if possible replenish their hands to six by drawing sufficient cards from the top of the talon. The attacker replenishes first, then the other players who joined in the attack, in clockwise order, and finally the defender.
If there are not enough cards in the talon to go around, cards are drawn as usual until it is exhausted. It may be that some of the later players do not draw any cards. The face up trump is drawn as the last card of the talon. After the talon is exhausted, the play continues without drawing.
If you are dealt the lowest trump (the six) or if you draw it from the talon, you are allowed to exchange it for the face up trump, placing your six of trumps under the talon and adding the turned up trump to your hand, at any time before the talon is exhausted. The six of trumps can only be exchanged by its original holder; if you acquire it from another player (as one of the cards you pick up when attacked) you cannot exchange it for the turned up trump.
If a player draws the trump 6 while replenishing, it can be swapped for the turned up trump even if that would be drawn by another player before the next bout. Even if another player has already drawn the turned up trump, the player who drew the six can still demand to exchange it provided that the bout after the one which exhausted the talon has not yet begun.
Sequence of Play
The general direction of play is clockwise, and for the first bout, the attacker is the player to the dealer's left. The defender is the next player in turn after the attacker - normally the player to the attacker's left. If an attack is beaten off, the defender becomes the next attacker, and the next player in turn is the new defender. If an attack succeeds, the defender does not get a turn to attack. The new attacker is the next player in turn after the defender, and the new defender is the player after that.
Examples: In the following examples there are four players: North and South are partners against East and West. Hearts are trumps and it is West's turn to attack North.
West holds K, J, 7, 9, 8, Q; North holds 10, 10, 8, 6, A, 10; East holds Q, 8, Q, K, 7, 6. West attacks with the 7 and North beats it with the 10. East can now continue the attack with the 7, which North beats with the 10. East and West have no more sevens or tens to play, so North has beaten off the attack. The four played cards are discarded from the game. West draws the top card from the talon, East draws the next one, and then North draws two. Now it is North's turn to attack East.
West holds K, J, 7, 9, 8, Q; North holds A, 10, 8, 6, A, 9; East holds Q, 8, Q, K, 7, 6. West attacks with the 7 and North cannot beat it, so has to pick it up. East has the 7 so gives this to North as well. West takes the top card from the talon and East takes the next one. The attack succeeded, so it is now East's turn to attack South.
West holds K, J, 7, K, 7, J; North holds Q, 10, J, J, 9, K; East holds 9, 7, 6, A, 9, 7. West attacks with 7 which North beats with 10; East continues with 7 (beaten by J) and 7 (beaten by K); now West can play the J (beaten by Q) and J (trumped with 9). At this point East could play the K, K or 7 and West could play the 9 or 9, but they have already attacked 5 times so they are only allowed to play one more card. In fact the 9 is the best choice, since North has already trumped a diamond and leading another is likely to put North under most pressure. As it happens, whichever card East and West play, North can play the J, beating off the attack. The twelve played cards are discarded. West draws from the talon first, then East, and finally North takes 6 new cards from the talon. North now attacks East.
West holds A, Q, J, K, K, A; North holds K, 9, 8, 7, 10, 9; East holds 7, 6, 7, J, 8, 7. West attacks with the J, which North beats with the K. West continues with the K and North decides to pick up (North could legally trump with the 7, but in this case East's sevens would be played next, and North would eventually have to pick up these low cards). When North picks up the jack and two kings, West could give North the K and East the J in addition, but in fact East and West choose to keep these good cards. West draws two cards from the talon and then East attacks South.
The Endgame
As players run out of cards they drop out of the play, and the other players continue. The effect of this on the sequence of play is slightly different depending on whether the game is being played individually or with partnerships:
In the individual game, when a player has no cards the turn simply passes over that player to the next person in clockwise rotation who still has cards.
In the four player partnership game, when someone has no cards, their turn is taken by their partner.
In the six player partnership game, as the players run out of cards, the remaining players of each partnership continue to play in order, skipping any member of the team who has no cards.
The Result
When playing as individuals, the game continues after the talon is exhausted until at the end of a bout, only one player has any cards left. This player is the loser (the fool) and must deal the next hand.
When playing with teams, the game ends when at the end of a bout, all the players of one team have run out of cards. The team which still have cards are the losers. The losing team is free to decide which of them should be given the job of dealing the next hand, even if only one of them was actually left with cards. If the players are of unequal skill, it will be advantageous for the weaker player to deal, so that the stronger player is the first defender.
Note that the game can only end at the end of an bout. If after the final attack has been beaten off, no one has any cards left, the game is a draw. This can happen when one team attacks with all their remaining cards, and all of the defender's cards are used to beat off the attack. If at this point no one has any more cards and the talon is exhausted, the game is a draw, and the loser of the previous hand deals again - hence the saying: "Staryy durak khuzhe novykh dvukh" ("An old fool is worse than two new ones").
Monday, September 15, 2008
Faberge Eggs
Faberge Eggs
Standing on average three to six inches tall, these miniature treasures crafted by hand out of precious metals and jewels came to symbolize the last czars of Russia, Alexander III and Nicholas II and tell a story of the royal family. In Post - Soviet Russia the Faberge Eggs became a window into the story of the fall of the three hundred year royal dynasty.
Until Peter Carl Faberge's miniature treasures attracted the eye of Czarina Maria Fedorovna, wife of the second - to - last czar, Alexander III, Russian jewelery was judged on carat size (bigger was always better). Faberge's pieces went against the trend, employing detailed handwork and (comparatively) subtle decoration. The Czarina loved his work so much that the Czar commissioned an egg from Faberge for the couple's twentieth anniversary. Hidden inside the egg was a gold chicken, crown, and a ruby egg, now lost. Maria Fedorovna was delighted with her present and until Alexander's death in October of 1894 at age forty - nine, Faberge made an egg for the royal family every Easter, which fell on the most important holiday in the Russian Orthodox church. When the inexperienced heir Nicholas II was crowned czar, the tradition changed - his widowed mother and his wife, Alexandra both received eggs.
Each egg was unique and hand made, created to reflect the life of the royal family. Many eggs featured family portraits, sometimes of a particular person such as heir Alexei. All eggs had a hidden surprise such as a miniature replica of the royal family's private train or images of Czarina Alexandra's homeland in Germany. Faberge's attention to detail is still mind boggling - photos of the royal family's carriage made for an egg were used for reference when the original carriage was restored and the miniature train from another egg still runs today.
While even the most expensive eggs cost under $10,000 the extravagance they symbolized upset the starving populace and came to represent the corruption and antiquated czarist rule. Nicholas II and Alexandra along side their four daughters and son preferred to live private lives, alienating them even more from their people which would prove all too disastrous. World War I was the straw that broke the camel's back - Nicholas II replaced a beloved general with himself even though he had no military genius and Alexandra became an object of ridicule among her own subjects when she and her daughters under went training to become nurses. Add that to the fact she was sister of Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany who were Russia's enemies and the royal family's days were numbered.
The last eggs made by Faberge were spartan - made of iron since gold and silver were scarce and lacking the intricate details of his normal work since most of his employees were on the battle field - their main attraction being the fold out picture of Alexandra and in descending age - Olga, Tatiana, Maria, and Anastasia - in their nurse uniforms. March 1918 marked the end of many traditions - the Romanovs were forced to abdicate, czar autocracy died, and the end of the Faberge eggs. Fifty eggs had been made - each different, all valuable, beyond their jewels.
Dowager Czarina Maria Fedorovna escaped with a single egg to England. Many were lost, but the remaining eggs were sold by the Bolsheviks under $1,000 a piece. The Great Depression made selling the eggs more difficult and they made no where the value Faberge's son had appraised them to be. Faberge himself died in 1920 under exile in Sweden, supposedly from a broken heart as he saw the forthcoming destruction of his greatest works. It was lucky he never lived to see the fate of his masterpieces; sold for pennies, several eggs missing their surprises, or damaged. To the Bolsheviks the eggs represented all that was rotten with the Romanov dynasty. The sooner the eggs left Russia, the better. What could not be sold Lenin had boxed up, treated as garbage, not to be seen for years. Yet, this was not the end of the egg's bizarre history.
Post - Soviet Russia now boosts the largest collection of Faberge Eggs in one place - 10; now seen as the artistic wonders they were, the eggs now sell for millions of dollars. Remaining eggs are scattered across the globe - Elizabeth II, Prince Rainier III of Monaco, and several self made American families (Post, Forbes, and so on) own eggs. Eight eggs, five of which are pre-1900, have disappeared from sight. The search for these missing wonders continues and maybe one day we can have all fifty eggs together, lined up and follow the story of the last two czars and their families. Faberge never recovered from the end of his celebrity for his lovingly crafted masterpieces. Now, he would be astonished to see his workmanship is what gives the Faberge Eggs their true value -
"The intrinsic value of the egg is comparatively quite low," says Von Habsburg. "The Winter Egg consists of two blocks of rock crystal – a couple of thousand dollars – a bit of platinum and some three thousand minute rose cut diamonds – another couple of thousand dollars. So all in all, if you break this egg up, what is it worth? Four or five thousand dollars. What are you paying for? The vision and genius of Fabergé!"
For more information please visit http://www.pbs.org/treasuresoftheworld/a_nav/faberge_nav/main_fabfrm.html
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